The Rise of Cancer Vaccines: Igniting an Immunotherapy Breakthrough in the Fight Against Cancer

Cancer is one of the most significant global health challenges. According to statistics from the World Health Organization (WHO), there were approximately 20 million new cancer cases and 9.7 million cancer-related deaths worldwide in 2022 alone, with new cases projected to exceed 35 million by 2050. In the face of the rapidly growing global cancer burden, traditional treatments such as surgery, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy have achieved some success in prolonging patient survival. However, many cancers, particularly refractory types like pancreatic cancer, still exhibit extremely low survival rates. Furthermore, issues such as recurrence and drug resistance frequently arise in advanced-stage cancer following long-term conventional therapy. This has prompted scientists to explore more precise and effective therapeutic approaches.

In recent years, immunotherapy, which harnesses the body’s own immune system to combat cancer, has gradually emerged as a frontier in oncology research. Among the various immunotherapeutic approaches, cancer vaccines have garnered significant attention due to their unique ability to train the immune system to recognize and attack cancer cells.

Unlike vaccines for preventing infectious diseases, cancer vaccines are primarily therapeutic, aiming to treat existing cancers. They work by delivering tumor-specific antigens to the immune system, activating T cells and other immune cells to destroy cancer cells. As of 2025, significant progress has been made in the development of cancer vaccines, with multiple clinical trials demonstrating the potential of mRNA vaccines and personalized peptide vaccines in cancer types such as pancreatic, lung, and kidney cancer, offering new hope for patients.

Unlike preventive vaccines (such as the HPV vaccine), cancer vaccines aim to achieve therapeutic effects by stimulating the immune system to recognize and attack cancer cells. The design of an ideal cancer vaccine seeks to induce durable anti-tumor immune memory, eliminate tumors, clear minimal residual disease, and avoid non-specific or adverse effects. Such a vaccine would not only eradicate cancer cells across all organs and systems but also minimize the risk of tumor recurrence or metastasis to the greatest extent possible.

Currently, cancer vaccines are primarily categorized into four technological platforms: peptide vaccines, nucleic acid vaccines, viral vaccines, and cell-based vaccines, each with its unique advantages and challenges.

Figure: Comparison of the Characteristics of Different Cancer Vaccine Technology Platforms

(Source: Cancer vaccines: current status and future directions/Journal of Hematology & Oncology)

Peptide vaccines, by mimicking cancer cell surface antigens, induce T cells to generate specific immune responses, offering core advantages such as high specificity, low toxicity, and ease of production.

Exploration of peptide vaccines has currently covered a variety of malignant tumors, demonstrating promising application prospects in certain cancer types. For instance, OSE2101 (Tedopi) is a peptide vaccine targeting HLA-A2-positive patients with non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). In early Phase II studies, the median overall survival (OS) for patients with advanced NSCLC reached 17.3 months. In the subsequent Phase III clinical trial ATALANTE-1 (NCT02654587), HLA-A2-positive patients who were resistant to immunotherapy received OSE2101 treatment and achieved a median OS of 11.1 months, significantly superior to the 7.5 months observed in the chemotherapy group. This represented a 41% reduction in the risk of death, with post-progression survival extended to 7.7 months (compared to 4.6 months in the chemotherapy group). Furthermore, in 2025, peptide vaccines targeting KRAS-mutant colorectal cancer and pancreatic cancer showed potential in Phase I/II clinical trials, aiming to evaluate their efficacy in specific genetic contexts.

Currently, peptide-based cancer vaccines are advancing in clinical research by virtue of their technical advantages; however, constrained by their inherent characteristics, their efficacy varies across different tumor types and patient subgroups. Future efforts should focus on further exploration, optimization, and validation in areas such as multi-epitope design to broaden HLA coverage and combination with immune checkpoint inhibitors to alleviate microenvironmental immunosuppression.

Nucleic acid vaccines are primarily categorized into DNA vaccines and mRNA vaccines. They work by introducing genetic material encoding antigens into the patient’s body to induce an immune response. Leveraging their inherent immunogenicity, nucleic acid vaccines can effectively elicit robust humoral immune responses and have demonstrated significant potential in the treatment of infectious diseases and cancer. Compared with traditional vaccines, nucleic acid vaccines also offer high efficacy and cost-effectiveness.

Among these, mRNA vaccines have garnered significant attention due to their success in COVID-19 vaccination. For instance, BNT122 (autogene cevumeran), an mRNA vaccine co-developed by BioNTech and Genentech, a subsidiary of Roche, significantly reduced the risk of recurrence in patients with pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) when used in combination with chemotherapy and the anti-PD-L1 immune checkpoint inhibitor atezolizumab in Phase I clinical trials. The trial results showed that 8 out of 16 patients generated robust, antigen-specific T-cell responses, and these patients experienced significantly prolonged time to recurrence. Furthermore, in 2025, the Markey Cancer Center in the United Kingdom is conducting clinical trials of mRNA vaccines for pancreatic cancer and non-small cell lung cancer, with preliminary results indicating their ability to effectively induce immune responses.

Viral vaccines are mainly categorized into three types: oncolytic virus vaccines, replication-deficient viral vector vaccines, and oncolytic virus vaccines.

Among these, oncovirus vaccines are primarily used for cancer prevention, as evidenced by the successful market launch of several prophylactic vaccines against HPV and HBV. In recent years, virus-like particle (VLP) vaccines have garnered significant attention due to their high immunogenicity and safety profile, while also demonstrating certain therapeutic potential.

Another major category is replication-defective viral vector vaccines, which utilize vectors such as adenovirus (Ad) and vaccinia virus (VV) to deliver tumor antigens. These vaccines are characterized by adjuvant-like properties that can induce innate immunity, the capacity of the vector to accommodate large DNA fragments, and high transfection efficiency. Furthermore, certain vectors (such as adenovirus) do not integrate into the host genome, offering a higher safety profile. In terms of clinical progress, Nadofaragene firadenovec, an adenovirus-based therapy, achieved a complete response (CR) rate of 53.4% at three months in Phase III trials for BCG-unresponsive non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer, with 45.5% of patients maintaining remission at 12 months. This product was approved by the FDA for marketing in 2022 under the brand name Adstiladrin.^®。

As an emerging therapy, oncolytic viruses can precisely kill tumor cells while simultaneously stimulating the body’s anti-tumor immune response. Upon infection by oncolytic viruses, tumor cells generate free radicals and cytokines; these cytokines further activate immune cells, a process that typically induces tumor lysis and promotes the release of substances such as tumor-associated antigens (TAAs).

For example, Talimogene laherparepvec (T-VEC, Imlygic), the first oncolytic virus vaccine approved by the U.S. FDA in 2015, is an oncolytic virus based on herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1). In the Phase III OPTiM clinical trial, the median overall survival (OS) for patients in the T-VEC group was 23.3 months, superior to the 18.9 months observed in the GM-CSF group. Another upgraded oncolytic virus, RP-1, enhances antitumor activity by expressing a vesicular stomatitis virus glycoprotein–transmembrane domain fusion protein. In the IGNYTE-3 clinical trial, when used in combination with anti-PD-1 inhibitors, it achieved an objective response rate of 33.6%, with a median duration of response of 21.6 months, and 85% of responses lasting longer than one year.

Cell-based vaccines mainly include whole-tumor-cell vaccines and dendritic cell (DC) vaccines loaded with tumor antigens, whose unique advantage lies in highly personalized, autologous therapy.

Whole-tumor cell vaccines utilize autologous or allogeneic tumor cells, with inactivation processing employed to enhance their immunogenicity. These vaccines present a broad array of tumor-associated antigens to the immune system, including tumor-specific mutation antigens, while simultaneously delivering both CD4+ and CD8+ T-cell epitopes.

Dendritic cell (DC) vaccines loaded with tumor antigens are prepared by extracting DCs from the patient. As the most potent antigen-presenting cells in the human body, DCs can capture, process, and present antigenic information to activate naive T cells and initiate specific immune responses. After being loaded with the corresponding tumor antigens, the extracted DCs are infused back into the patient, thereby activating a large number of T cells capable of precisely recognizing and killing cancer cells.

In terms of clinical progress, first-generation whole-tumor cell vaccines have completed multiple Phase III trials, encompassing autologous, allogeneic, and genetically modified tumor cells. Although their clinical efficacy has not yet been definitively established, certain combination regimens, such as GM-CSF-expressing cellular vaccines combined with the CTLA-4 blocking antibody ipilimumab, have demonstrated promise. Regarding dendritic cell (DC) vaccines, a notable example is KSD-101, an autologous DC vaccine loaded with EBV-associated antigens, which was presented at the 2024 European Hematology Association (EHA) Annual Congress. It showed significant efficacy in patients with EBV-associated hematologic malignancies who were refractory to conventional therapy or had relapsed; among five evaluable patients, both the complete response rate and the objective response rate reached 100% within 12 weeks post-injection.

Among the various cancer vaccine technologies, personalized neoantigen peptide vaccines have garnered significant attention for their ability to target patient-specific tumor antigens.

These vaccines utilize high-throughput sequencing technology to identify somatic mutations in tumors and generate neoantigens. Since these antigens are present exclusively in cancer cells and not in normal cells, they serve as ideal targets for immunotherapy. In recent years, advances in high-throughput sequencing, artificial intelligence (AI), and nanotechnology have significantly propelled the prediction of neoantigens and the development of peptide vaccines, making personalized peptide vaccine therapy for cancer a reality.

Figure: Identification and Workflow of Tumor Neoantigens

(Source: Cancer vaccines: current status and future directions/Journal of Hematology & Oncology)

It can be said that peptide vaccines are currently one of the most highly prioritized research directions in the field of cancer vaccine development. Globally, multiple peptide vaccines have been developed for HIV, HCV, and other related infectious diseases, as well as for solid tumors. Currently, peptide vaccines are undergoing a full-chain technological iteration from “single-antigen” formulations toward intelligent design, precise delivery, and combination interventions.

The emerging field of personalized peptide cancer vaccines is also attracting numerous pioneers. A cohort of startup biotech companies focused on the research and development, clinical trials, and commercialization of anti-tumor personalized peptide vaccines has emerged both domestically and internationally, including pioneer enterprises such as Mingkai Biotechnology, Anda Biotechnology, and Nuanjin Biotechnology.

Taking Minkai Bio as an example, its core competitiveness lies in its ability to predict and screen tumor neoantigens using high-throughput sequencing and artificial intelligence technologies. Minkai’s R&D process includes the following key steps:

1. High-Throughput Sequencing:Identify tumor-specific mutations by analyzing the genome of patient tumor samples.

2. AI Prediction:Leverage AI algorithms to predict which mutations may generate neoantigens with high immunogenicity.

3. Patent Screening System:Select neoantigens that can be effectively presented by MHC class I/II molecules and trigger clonal expansion of T cell receptors (TCRs).

4. Personalized Vaccine Design:Synthesize targeted peptide vaccines based on the patient's specific mutation profile.

Furthermore, Minkai has developed multi-omics and AI-driven companion diagnostic biomarkers, further enhancing the precision of treatment. It is understood that Minkai Biologics’ current R&D platform covers pipelines for high-incidence, refractory tumors such as glioblastoma, lung cancer, and prostate cancer, with plans to expand its indications to encompass all solid tumors in the future.

Among these, personalized peptide tumor vaccines have demonstrated favorable clinical outcomes in investigator-initiated trials (IITs): In patients with stage IV pancreatic cancer who experienced recurrence and metastasis after conventional therapy, treatment with a personalized tumor neoantigen vaccine combined with anti-PD-1 monoclonal antibody resulted in radiographic disappearance of tumor lesions, a significant decline in tumor markers, and sustained complete remission.

In clinical advancements for refractory cancers such as pancreatic cancer, personalized peptide vaccines are also demonstrating unique advantages compared to other vaccine technologies.

Professor Markus Maurer, Chief Scientist at Minke Biologics and Director of the Center for Immunotherapy and Cellular Therapy at the Champalimaud Foundation, has conducted extensive research on personalized cancer vaccines and published numerous papers. One of his papers, titled “Targeting Neoepitopes to Treat Solid Malignancies: Immunosurgery,” highlights the critical role of personalized and shared cancer vaccine strategies in treating cancer patients. The study found that personalized cancer vaccines, which deliver individualized neoepitopes via peptide formulations or RNA constructs, can induce durable immune responses in patients with advanced-stage cancer.

Figure: Tumor mutational burden (TMB)-targeted immunotherapy regimens and personalized and shared cancer vaccine therapeutic strategies at the Champalimaud Foundation’s Center for the Unknown (Source: Targeting Neoepitopes to Treat Solid Malignancies: Immunosurgery)

At a thematic summit dedicated to health innovation hosted by the internationally renowned media outlet CNN, Professor Maurer explicitly highlighted the pivotal role of the “Future Hospital” in advancing personalized cancer therapy, stating, “Each tumor has distinct mutations and requires personalized therapies,” and “The key is to restore T cells’ ability to recognize tumors.” These insights align closely with the development philosophy of personalized peptide vaccines—“customizing vaccines based on patients’ own tumor mutations”—and their goal of “activating immune cells for precise anticancer effects,” thereby forming a coherent scientific rationale.

Professor Maurer emphasized in his lecture, “The innate human immune system inherently harbors the power to combat cancer—among every million immune cells, there is always one capable of precisely recognizing mutations in cancer cells.” Today, personalized anti-tumor peptide vaccines, centered on “awakening this innate immunity,” are making precision cancer therapy a reality. He further explained, “The ability of immune cells to recognize cancer cell mutations is the safest anti-cancer weapon bestowed upon humanity by nature.” In a successful immune response, immune cells “precisely eliminate” cancer cells without harming healthy tissues—which constitutes the core advantage of peptide vaccines.

It is reported that Professor Maurer and the Champalimaud Foundation have established close and in-depth collaborations with multiple leading international research institutions and companies in the field of cancer immunotherapy, including The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Stanford University, and BioNTech. It is believed that under Professor Maurer’s leadership, MinGai Biotech will leverage the foundation’s global partnership network to advance the clinical translation of peptide vaccines and other cutting-edge cancer therapies worldwide, thereby benefiting patients across the globe.

Overall, the cancer vaccine industry is undergoing a profound transformation driven by technological innovation. New-generation technology platforms, represented by peptide vaccines, are becoming the key engine driving industry development, leveraging their core advantages of precise targeting, high safety profiles, and short R&D cycles.

If this trend receives clear policy support and a positive response from the capital market in the future, it will undoubtedly give rise to a high-potential incremental market. Market forecasts indicate that the global cancer vaccine market is expected to grow from approximately USD 10–12 billion in 2025 to USD 15–40 billion by 2030, with the booming rise of personalized therapy providing strong momentum for this growth.

In this promising sector, those who can build a strong competitive advantage through forward-looking strategic layouts and robust technological barriers are poised to seize the initiative in the upcoming “golden decade” of the cancer vaccine industry. Of course, continuous clinical validation and regulatory support will be key to achieving this goal, and the ultimate beneficiaries will undoubtedly be the countless patients with unmet clinical needs.